Must-Know for Beginners: A Detailed Explanation of Python Data Types (Integers, Strings, Booleans)
This article introduces Python's basic data types, using the analogy of "data boxes" with labels to help understand the operations of different data. There are three core types: 1. **Integer (int)**: Handles numbers (positive/negative/0), supporting addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, modulo operation (%), and integer division (//). It can be converted using int() (e.g., converting a string to an integer) and has no size limit. 2. **String (str)**: Text enclosed in quotes (single/double quotes, requiring matching pairs), supporting concatenation (+), length calculation (len()), and indexing (0-based). It can be converted using str() (e.g., converting an integer to a string). 3. **Boolean (bool)**: Only True/False, used for logical judgments, and supports the not operator for negation (e.g., in conditional statements). These three types are fundamental to programming. Subsequent learning will involve complex types like lists and dictionaries, making basic data types a crucial prerequisite.
Read MorePython for Beginners: Variable Basics — Definition, Assignment, and Usage
A variable is a "container" for storing data in programming, used to flexibly store and modify information (such as age, weight) and avoid repeatedly writing specific numerical values. In Python, variables are defined directly using "variable name = value" (e.g., age = 18), without type declaration; the assignment determines the type (dynamic typing). Variable naming must follow rules: it can only contain letters, numbers, and underscores, cannot start with a number, cannot use keywords (e.g., if), and is case-sensitive (age ≠ Age). When using, variables are printed by name (print(age)) or involved in calculations (e.g., x + y). The variable type changes with the last assignment (e.g., after a = 10, a = "Python"). Precautions: A variable must be assigned before use; variable names should be meaningful (e.g., student_count instead of sc); avoid repeated assignment that overwrites the original value. Variables are a core tool in Python; mastering their definition, naming, and usage enables efficient data processing.
Read MoreQuick Directory Tree Creation: A Guide to Using the Ubuntu `tree` Command
Tree is a tool for visualizing directory structures in Ubuntu, which can intuitively display file hierarchies and is suitable for understanding project organization. To install it, first execute `sudo apt update`, then use `sudo apt install tree`. Basic usage: Simply enter `tree` to view the current directory's tree structure. Common parameters: - `-d` only shows directories; - `-L N` (where N is a number) controls the display depth (e.g., `tree -L 2`); - `-f` shows full paths; - `-F` distinguishes file types (directories are appended with `/`); - `-a` shows hidden files; - `-h` displays file sizes (in K/M/G). Advanced usage: Output to a file (`tree > dir.txt`) or combine with `find` to view system directories (e.g., `find /usr/share | tree -L 1`). By combining parameters, you can flexibly control the output and improve file management efficiency.
Read MoreUbuntu System Information: Viewing Hardware Configuration with lscpu/lspci
In the Ubuntu system, understanding hardware configuration is fundamental for operations, and you can quickly obtain information using the `lscpu` and `lspci` commands. `lscpu` focuses on CPU and memory: executing it directly reveals details such as CPU architecture, number of logical/physical cores, model, cache, and total memory capacity. For example, "Model name" shows the CPU model, "CPU(s)" indicates the number of threads, and "Memory" displays the memory size. `lspci` is used to list PCI devices (such as graphics cards and network cards). Commonly used parameters include `-v` (detailed information), `-t` (tree structure), and `-nn` (hardware ID). The output includes device type, manufacturer, and model. For instance, "01:00.0 VGA compatible controller: NVIDIA Corporation..." can identify the graphics card. Practical tips: Redirect output to a file to save configurations, use `lspci -vnn | grep -i vga` to filter graphics card information, and `lspci -t` to display the device connection structure. These two commands help quickly troubleshoot hardware issues or confirm compatibility.
Read MoreSystem Resource Monitoring: Is Ubuntu's htop Command Better Than top?
In Ubuntu, top and htop are commonly used system resource monitoring tools. The classic top tool has a monochrome interface with compact information and requires memorizing shortcuts (e.g., P/M for sorting), lacking mouse operations. Its memory units are default in Kb, which is not intuitive, making it suitable for users familiar with commands. htop, an enhanced version of top, needs prior installation on Ubuntu (`sudo apt install htop`). It features color display, tabular layout, mouse support, intuitive memory units, and process tree visualization, making it easier for newcomers to use. Comparison shows htop is more beginner-friendly: clear color visuals allow header-click sorting, while operations like F5 for process trees and F6 for sorting are simple. Top suits scenarios requiring complex monitoring for users proficient in Linux commands. In summary, htop is recommended for beginners as it enables more intuitive and efficient system monitoring.
Read MoreUbuntu Text Processing: Using the cat Command to View File Contents
The `cat` command is a fundamental text processing tool in the Ubuntu system, derived from "concatenate". Its core function is to view and merge file contents. The basic syntax `cat filename` can display a file's content (e.g., viewing `test.txt`). Common options enhance its functionality: `-n` shows line numbers for all lines (including empty ones), `-b` only numbers non-empty lines, and `-s` merges consecutive empty lines. For multi-file processing, you can view multiple files simultaneously (e.g., `cat file1 file2`) or redirect the merged output to a new file using `>` (e.g., `cat a.txt b.txt > new.txt`). Important notes: If the file does not exist, an error will occur, so verify the path. If permissions are insufficient, use `sudo`. The `>` redirection overwrites the target file; it is recommended to back up or use `>>` for appending instead. Despite its simplicity, `cat` is highly practical. By practicing basic operations (e.g., testing different options and merging multiple files), you can quickly master its flexible applications.
Read MoreAdvanced Permission Management: Risks and Use Cases of `chmod 777` on Ubuntu
In the Ubuntu system, `chmod 777` is a command to modify file/directory permissions and should be used with caution. Its meaning is to grant full permissions to the owner, the group it belongs to, and other users through the numeric mode `777` (corresponding to `rwx`, i.e., read, write, and execute permissions). `777` is considered a high-risk permission due to multiple risks: any user can arbitrarily modify or delete files or directories. If applied to a web server directory, it is vulnerable to uploading malicious scripts. In development environments or old systems, misconfiguration or legacy setups can easily lead to permission abuse, violating security compliance. Although temporary use may occur in teaching, testing, or development debugging, it is not recommended. Secure alternatives include: `755` (owner with `rwx`, group and others with `rx`), setting correct owners/groups (e.g., `770` for internal group users only), or using ACL tools for precise permission control. In summary, the risks of `777` permissions far outweigh the benefits. It should be avoided unless the system is absolutely secure and users are completely trustworthy. It is recommended to use more secure permission settings instead.
Read MoreDifference between Ubuntu apt-get and apt: Which one should beginners use?
In the Ubuntu system, both `apt` and `apt-get` are used for package management, but they differ in design goals and user-friendliness for beginners. `apt-get` is an early tool with comprehensive functionality but complex parameters (requiring subcommands like `apt-get install`), making it suitable for experienced users. `apt`, on the other hand, is a newer version introduced after Ubuntu 16.04. It consolidates commonly used features into more concise commands (e.g., `apt install`), automatically handles dependencies, and focuses on beginner-friendly scenarios. The core differences lie in `apt`'s intuitive commands and more intelligent dependency handling, making it the preferred choice for newcomers. Essential `apt` commands for beginners include: `sudo apt update` (updating package sources), `sudo apt install <package-name>` (installing software), `sudo apt search <keyword>` (searching for packages), `sudo apt upgrade` (upgrading packages), and `sudo apt purge <package-name>` (completely uninstalling software). In summary, beginners are recommended to directly use `apt`, as it can cover 90% of daily usage scenarios.
Read MoreTerminal Efficiency: Ubuntu Command Line History Management
Managing Ubuntu command line history effectively can significantly improve operational efficiency. The core methods are as follows: **Viewing and Searching**: Use the basic `history` command to display numbered historical commands. For quick searching, use `Ctrl+R` for reverse search (keyword matching, press Enter to execute, Ctrl+G to exit), or `history | grep "keyword"` for filtering. **Modifying and Deleting**: Use `fc` to modify commands, e.g., `fc -e number` to open an editor for correction, or `fc -s number parameter` to modify parameters and execute. To delete, use `history -c` to clear the session, `history -d number` to delete a specific command, or directly `rm ~/.bash_history` to permanently clear. **Customization and Optimization**: Edit `~/.bashrc` to set `HISTSIZE`/`HISTFILESIZE` to control the number of commands, `HISTCONTROL=ignoredups` to ignore duplicates, `HISTTIMEFORMAT` to add timestamps, and `HISTIGNORE` to shield sensitive commands. **Practical Tips**: Use `Ctrl+P/N` to navigate through history, and `!number` to execute historical commands. Proper management of history can greatly enhance command reuse efficiency.
Read MoreUbuntu touch Command: Quickly Create Empty Files
In the Ubuntu system, the `touch` command is a practical utility for creating empty files. Its core function is to quickly generate empty files. If the target file already exists, it only updates its access and modification timestamps without altering the content. Basic usage includes: creating a single file (e.g., `touch test.txt`), creating multiple files in bulk (separated by spaces, e.g., `touch file1.txt file2.txt`), and specifying a path to create a file (e.g., `touch ~/Documents/note.txt`). When using it, note that if the directory in the target path does not exist, you need to first create the multi-level directory using `mkdir -p`. If permission is insufficient, you can use `sudo` to elevate privileges (e.g., `sudo touch /root/test.txt`). If the file already exists, only the modification time will be updated, and the content remains unchanged. Summary: The `touch` command is simple and efficient, supporting multiple files and path specification. It is a "powerful tool" for creating empty files and updating timestamps. Just ensure attention to permissions and path validity when using it.
Read MoreMust - Read for Beginners: Ubuntu Software Uninstallation (remove vs purge)
In Ubuntu, the common commands for uninstalling software are `apt remove` and `apt purge`, which often confuse new users due to their similar appearance. Both require `sudo` privileges. `remove` only uninstalls the software package while retaining configuration files (e.g., settings), making it suitable for reinstallation when you want to preserve previous settings. In contrast, `purge` completely removes the software package, its configuration files, and associated dependencies, which is ideal for thorough cleanup to avoid residual interference. Residual configuration files may cause conflicts between old settings and new software versions after reinstallation. You can check if a package is completely uninstalled using `dpkg -l | grep 包名` or `dpkg -s 包名`. If unsure, start with `remove` first; if residual configurations affect functionality, use `purge` to perform a complete removal. Summary: `remove` is a lightweight option that preserves settings, while `purge` performs a thorough deletion of configurations. Choose the appropriate command based on your needs.
Read MoreUbuntu netstat Command: View Network Connection Status
In Ubuntu, `netstat` is a core network management tool used to view critical network data such as connections and routing tables. If not pre-installed, it can be installed by executing `sudo apt update && sudo apt install net-tools`. The basic syntax is `netstat [options]`, with commonly used parameters and their functions: - `-a` shows all connections (including TCP/UDP); - `-t`/`-u` filter TCP/UDP protocols respectively; - `-n` displays IP/port in numeric format (no DNS resolution); - `-l` only shows listening connections; - `-p` requires sudo privileges to display process IDs and names; - `-r` views the routing table. Typical application scenarios include: - Checking listening ports with `sudo netstat -tuln` (combination of `-tuln`: TCP/UDP listening, numeric format); - Troubleshooting port occupancy (e.g., port 80) with `sudo netstat -tulnp | grep 80`; - Viewing established TCP connections with `netstat -tan | grep ESTABLISHED`. Mastering core commands and parameter combinations (e.g., listening ports, port occupancy, routing tables) combined with tools like `grep` enables efficient network issue diagnosis.
Read MoreSystem Maintenance: Clearing Cached Files with Ubuntu apt clean
In the Ubuntu system, packages downloaded by the `apt` tool are temporarily stored in the cache directory `/var/cache/apt/archives/`. Long-term accumulation of these packages can occupy disk space and affect system speed. Cleaning the cache can improve efficiency, and the `apt clean` command is recommended for this purpose. APT cache is used to accelerate repeated installations and is stored in the specified directory. The problems of long-term non-cleaning include occupying space and containing useless old version packages. To use `apt clean`, open the terminal (Ctrl+Alt+T), execute `sudo apt clean`, and enter the administrator password. After cleaning, it will not affect the installed software. Other related commands: `autoclean` only cleans up old version packages (retains new versions); `autoremove` deletes packages that are no longer dependent (not for cleaning cache). Precautions: Clean regularly (e.g., monthly), and you can check the cache size with `du -sh /var/cache/apt/archives/`. Combining with `autoclean` or `autoremove` can enable fine-grained management of the cache and keep the system clean.
Read MoreUbuntu sudo Command: The Correct Way to Perform Privilege Escalation
In Ubuntu, "sudo" is an abbreviation for "superuser do," allowing ordinary users to temporarily gain root privileges to execute administrative commands, such as using `sudo apt install` to elevate permissions when installing software. Its necessity lies in avoiding the high risks of directly using the root account (such as system crashes caused by accidental operations). It enables secure privilege elevation through temporary permissions, hiding the root password, and supporting multi-user collaboration. Basic usage: `sudo [command]`, for example, installing software (`sudo apt install [package name]`), system updates (`sudo apt update/upgrade`), and modifying configurations (`sudo nano /etc/...`). Common options: `sudo -i` switches to the root shell, and `sudo -u [username] [command]` executes commands as another user. Password-free configuration: Edit the sudoers file using `visudo` and add `your_username ALL=(ALL:ALL) NOPASSWD: ALL` (suitable for personal environments, use cautiously in public environments). Notes: If you forget your password, you can reset it with `su -`; avoid dangerous operations (e.g., `rm -rf /`); if a command fails, check for spelling errors or permission requirements. Summary: Sudo is a secure privilege escalation tool. Correct usage (considering scenarios, options, and rules) can prevent system issues.
Read MoreBatch Processing: Tips for Using the Ubuntu find Command to Locate Files
In the Ubuntu system, the `find` command is an efficient tool for locating files/directories. It can precisely target files/directories based on criteria such as filename, type, size, modification time, etc., making it suitable for batch file processing. Its syntax is structured as "`find [starting path] [search criteria] [action]`". The starting path defaults to the current directory (`.`), search criteria are defined by parameters (e.g., `-name`, `-type`), and actions include operations like deletion (`-delete`) and display (`-print`). Common parameters and examples: - **By filename**: - `-name` (exact match, supports wildcards `*`, `?`), e.g., `find . -name "*.txt"`. - `-iname` (case-insensitive), e.g., `find / -iname "README"`. - **By type**: - `-type`, where `f` (regular file), `d` (directory), `l` (symbolic link), etc. For example, `find . -type d` (lists all directories in the current directory). - **By size**: - `-size`, with units `k` (kilobytes), `M` (megabytes), `G` (gigabytes).
Read MoreAdvanced Usage of the `cp` Command in Ubuntu File Copying and Pasting
In the Ubuntu system, the `cp` command is a commonly used file copying utility. Beyond its basic functionality, its advanced usage can efficiently handle scenarios such as batch copying and directory recursion. **Core Advanced Usages**: 1. **Batch Copying**: Use the wildcard `*` to match files. For example, `cp *.txt docs/` copies all `.txt` files from the current directory to the `docs` directory in bulk. 2. **Recursive Directory Copy**: Add the `-r` parameter to fully copy subdirectory contents. For instance, `cp -r work/ backup/` completely migrates the `work` directory and its subfiles to `backup`. 3. **Preserve File Attributes**: The `-a` parameter retains permissions, timestamps, and other attributes. For example, `cp -a /etc/hosts /tmp/hosts.bak` fully inherits the original file attributes. 4. **Interactive Avoid Overwrite**: The `-i` parameter prompts for confirmation before overwriting. For example, `cp -i old.txt new.txt` prevents accidental overwrites. 5. **Handle Symbolic Links**: Use `-P` to copy the symbolic link itself without following it (default behavior follows the link). For example, `cp -P link.txt new_link` copies the link file instead of its target. 6. **Copy and Rename**: Specify a new name in the target path (truncated in original input).
Read MoreBeginner's Guide: Steps to Update and Upgrade Ubuntu System
Regular updates for Ubuntu enhance security, introduce new features, and optimize performance, which can be easily accomplished by following the steps outlined below for beginners. **Reasons for updating:** - Fix security vulnerabilities. - Add new functionalities. - Improve system performance. **Step-by-Step Operations:** 1. Open the terminal (via shortcut `Ctrl+Alt+T` or searching for "Terminal" in the GUI). 2. Execute `sudo apt update` to refresh the package list. 3. Run `sudo apt upgrade` to upgrade installed packages, confirm the action when prompted, and wait for completion. 4. (Optional) Clean up unused resources: - `sudo apt autoremove` (removes unnecessary dependencies). - `sudo apt clean` (clears cached package files). For major version upgrades, use `sudo do-release-upgrade` (requires data backup in advance). **Common Issues & Solutions:** - "Could not get lock" errors: Wait or execute `sudo rm /var/lib/dpkg/lock-frontend` to unlock. - Slow updates: Switch to a domestic mirror source. - Upgrade failures: Restart the system and retry. **Summary:** The core steps are: Terminal → Update sources → Upgrade → Cleanup. Develop a habit of regular updates, and troubleshoot issues through trial and error.
Read MoreMethods for Searching Packages with Ubuntu apt-cache
`apt-cache` is a core tool for querying software package information in the Ubuntu APT system, which can assist in software installation and management. Its core functions include: Basic search is achieved through `apt-cache search <keyword>`, matching package names or descriptions (e.g., searching for "text editor" will find editors like nano and vim); For precise searching, the `--names-only` parameter can be added to match only package names (e.g., `python3` will only display software whose package names contain this term); To view detailed information, use `apt-cache show <package name>`, which can obtain version, installed size, dependencies, etc. (e.g., the version of nano and its dependent libraries). Advanced techniques can be combined with `apt list` to filter installed or upgradeable packages, but it should be noted that: Execute `sudo apt update` to update the source before searching to ensure the results are up-to-date; The keyword needs to be accurate to avoid spelling errors. Mastering the three core commands `search`, `--names-only`, and `show` can efficiently locate and manage software packages.
Read MoreIntroduction to Terminal Editors: Basic Operations of Ubuntu vi/vim
In the Ubuntu system, vi/vim is an efficient terminal-based text editing tool with powerful functionality and no need for a graphical interface. To open a file, use `vim filename`. Common exit commands include `:wq` (save and exit, most frequently used), `:q` (if no changes were made), and `:q!` (force quit without saving changes). The core consists of three modes: In command mode (default), use `h/j/k/l` to move the cursor, `x/dd` to delete, `yy` to copy, and `u` to undo. Insert mode is entered by pressing `i/a/o`, and `Esc` returns to command mode. In bottom-line mode (accessed by pressing `:`), commands like `w` (save), `:/keyword` (search), and `:set nu` (display line numbers) can be executed. Quick practice: `vim test.txt` to create a new file, use `i` to insert text, `dd` to delete an incorrect line, `yy` + `p` to copy and paste, and finally `:wq` to save. Beginner tips: `u` for undo, `[number]G` to jump to a specific line, `vim -R` for read-only mode, and note that vim is an enhanced version of vi. Mastering mode switching and frequently used operations (`i`, `dd`, `p`, `wq`) allows for rapid proficiency.
Read MoreUbuntu ifconfig Command: View/Configure Network Interfaces
In the Ubuntu system, `ifconfig` is a classic tool for viewing and configuring network interfaces, widely used in daily network operations and troubleshooting. Network interfaces include wired network cards (e.g., `eth0`/`ens33`), wireless network cards (e.g., `wlan0`), and the local loopback interface (`lo`). Each interface has a MAC address, an IP address, and its status is either enabled (`UP`) or disabled (`DOWN`). **Viewing Interface Information**: - Executing `ifconfig` without parameters displays enabled interfaces, with focus on IP address, MAC address, packet counts, and the `UP` status. - The `-a` option shows all interfaces (including disabled ones). - The `-s` option outputs a concise summary of metrics (e.g., MTU, speed). **Temporary Configuration**: Requires `sudo` privileges. You can temporarily set an IP address (e.g., `ifconfig ens33 192.168.1.200 netmask 255.255.255.0`), and use `up`/`down` to enable/disable the interface (this configuration is lost after a reboot). **Note**: Ubuntu 20.04+ requires installing `net-tools` (which includes `ifconfig`) first. Temporary configuration is suitable for testing purposes.
Read MoreNetwork Connectivity Check: A Guide to Using the ping Command in Ubuntu
In Ubuntu, `ping` is a fundamental tool for troubleshooting network connectivity. It sends packets based on the ICMP protocol to a target host and receives responses to determine if the link is operational and if the target is reachable. The basic syntax is `ping [options] target_address`, where the target address supports either an IP or a domain name. Common options include: - `-c <count>`: Specify the number of packets to send (e.g., `ping -c 4 www.baidu.com` tests 4 times). - `-t`: Continuously ping until manually interrupted (`Ctrl+C`). - `-i <interval>`: Set the sending interval (e.g., `-i 0.5` shortens to 0.5 seconds per packet). - `-W <timeout>`: Set the timeout period (e.g., `-W 2` waits 2 seconds). - `-s <size>`: Adjust the packet size (e.g., `-s 1024` sends 1024-byte packets). Application scenarios include: - Checking local network connectivity (`ping -c 1 127.0.0.1` to verify the protocol stack). - Testing local area network (LAN) devices (ping the gateway or IPs in the same subnet). - Verifying external network access (ping Baidu/Google DNS servers). Common issues and solutions: - "Host unreachable": Check the target IP, host status, or firewall settings.
Read MoreUbuntu zip/unzip Commands: A Comprehensive Guide to Compression and Extraction Management
In the Ubuntu system, compressed archives are used for transferring large files, saving space, and backing up data. `zip` and `unzip` are commonly used tools. Before use, check if they are installed; if not, install them via `apt`. When compressing, the `zip` command syntax is `zip [options] archive_name [file/folder]`. For a single file, compress it directly. For a folder, the `-r` (recursive) parameter is required. Common parameters include: `-r` (compress directories), `-q` (quiet mode), `-v` (show details), and `-j` (do not preserve directory structure). To extract, use `unzip` with the syntax `unzip [options] archive_name`. By default, files are extracted to the current directory. Use `-d` to specify the target directory, `-l` to list contents, `-o` to overwrite existing files, and `-n` to skip existing files. Common issues: Folders require `-r` to preserve structure; password-protected compression requires entering the password; use `sudo` if permission is insufficient; for large files, use `-q` to speed up compression. Key commands: Compress a directory with `zip -r archive_name directory`, extract to a specified directory with `unzip archive_name -d directory`.
Read MoreUbuntu Compression and Decompression: Detailed Explanation of the tar Command
In Ubuntu, `tar` is the core tool for file archiving and compression. It can package multiple files/directories into a `.tar` archive and, when combined with compression tools like `gzip`, `bzip2`, or `xz`, generate compressed formats such as `.tar.gz`, `.tar.bz2`, or `.tar.xz`. The basic syntax is: `tar [options] [archive_name] [files/directories]` Key options include: - `-c`: Create an archive - `-x`: Extract an archive - `-t`: List archive contents - `-v`: Verbose mode (show process) - `-f`: Specify the archive name (must be placed **immediately after** the options) Compression options (`-z` for gzip, `-j` for bzip2, `-J` for xz) must be used with `-c` (create) or `-x` (extract). Common operations: - Pack and compress: `tar -czvf archive.tar.gz file1 file2` - Extract: `tar -xzvf archive.tar.gz` - List contents: `tar -tvf archive.tar.gz` - Extract to a specific directory: Add `-C <path>` (e.g., `tar -xzvf archive.tar.gz -C /target/dir`) **Notes**: - Compression format must match the option (e.g., use `-z` for `.tar.gz`). - When using `-f`, the archive name must follow immediately after the options (e.g., `tar -czvf archive.tar.gz` is correct; `tar -cvf -z archive.tar.gz` is invalid). - Archiving directories preserves their original structure.
Read MoreQuick Locate: Using the Ubuntu grep Command to Search for Text Content
grep is a practical text search tool in Ubuntu, short for "Global Regular Expression Print", with its core function being the fast search for lines matching a pattern in text. The basic usage is `grep "keyword" filename`, and it is case-sensitive by default. Common parameters enhance efficiency: -i for case insensitivity (e.g., `grep -i "ubuntu" test.txt` matches both "Ubuntu" and "ubuntu"); -n to show line numbers (e.g., `grep -n "is" test.txt`); -v for inverse search (excluding lines containing the keyword, e.g., `grep -v "is" test.txt`); -o to display only the matching content (e.g., `grep -o "Ubuntu" test.txt`); -c to count the number of matching lines (e.g., `grep -c "Ubuntu" test.txt`). Advanced tips: -r for recursive directory search (e.g., `grep -r "error" ./my_project`); searching across multiple files by directly listing filenames; combining with pipes (|) to filter command output (e.g., `ls | grep "txt"`). Mastering basic usage and core parameters enables efficient text location and content filtering; combining with regular expressions further expands its functionality.
Read MoreBeginners' Guide: Changing File Ownership with `chown` in Ubuntu
`chown` is a core command in Ubuntu for modifying the owner and group of files/directories to adjust file ownership. Its syntax is `chown [options] new_owner[:new_group] file/directory`, with key parameters including: -R (recursively modify directories and sub-files), -v (display operation process), and -h (only modify the owner of symbolic links). Practical scenarios: ① Modify the owner of a single file (requires sudo, e.g., `chown -v new_user file`); ② Recursively modify a directory (`chown -R new_user directory`); ③ Modify both owner and group simultaneously (`chown new_owner:new_group file`); ④ Modify a symbolic link (`chown -h new_user link_file`). Notes: Ordinary users can only modify their own files; system files require sudo. It is recommended to confirm the directory structure before using -R recursion. Ensure the username/group name exists. `chown` can modify both owner and group at once, while `chgrp` only changes the group. By mastering basic syntax and parameters and practicing more, proficiency can be achieved.
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